Reinforcement of Concrete Slabs

The determination of a formwork framework ought to be made based on the chosen floor framework that satisfies the basic stacking conditions. Floor slabs in concrete structures are classified into two essential sorts, in view of the heap appropriation applied on the Reinforced Concrete slab:

Two-way slab, in which the rectangularity proportion (slab length/width) is somewhere in the range of 1 and 2, and the slab load is moved to the supporting pillars in two directions.Two-way development incorporates flat plate, flat slab, waffle slab, and two-way slabs bolstered by drop shafts.

Single direction slab, in which the rectangularity proportion (slab length/width) is more than 2, and the slab load is moved to the supporting bars a single way. Single direction development as a rule remembers strong slabs for shafts or dividers, single direction joist (ribbed) slabs upheld on bars or bearing dividers.

Two-Way Flat Plate: Such slabs might be cantilevered at the outside of the structure to allow the utilization of outside balconies.The supporting segments for flat plates are normally similarly dispersed to encourage the plan and development of such slabs.

This framework is prudent for ranges of up to 23 ft (7.0 m) with mellow reinforcing.Flat plates can be built in least time since they use the easiest conceivable formwork. Level plates have been utilized effectively in multi storey inn, lodging, medical clinic, and high rises.

Two-Way Flat Slab: A flat slab basic framework comprises a steady thickness of Reinforced Concrete slab with drop boards at the sections areas. Note that the framework is normally appropriate for square or about square boards.

In prior years, section capitals were utilized alongside drop boards, but since of the higher formwork cost, segment capitals are less preferred in the present development practice. Level slabs are utilized to oppose heavier burdens and longer ranges than flat plates. Generally, the framework is generally appropriate for square or about square boards.


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Pre Engineered Buildings (PEB)

Pre Engineered Buildings (PEB) are the buildings which are engineered at a factory and assembled at site. Typically PEBs are steel structures. Developed segments are manufactured at the factory to correct size, moved to site and assembled at site with catapulted associations. This sort of Structural Concept is commonly used to manufacture Industrial Buildings, Metro Stations, Warehouses and so on.

The adaptability of PEB in the spot of Conventional Steel Building plan ideas brought about numerous favorable circumstances, including economy and simpler manufacture.

These sort of building structures can be done inside to serve any capacities that are really helpful in a low ascent building plan. Instances of Pre-Engineered Buildings are distribution centers, Canopies, Factories, Bridges and so on.

Segments of PEB: Pre Engineered Buildings comprise diverse steel structural part which are as per the following,

1. Primary Frame: Primary surrounding of a PEB is a gathering of built up I-Shaped steel individuals and encircling brackets or castellated beams and so forth.
2. Secondary Structural Elements: It is really Cold Formed Members, which can be in diff. shapes like "Z", "C" and so forth. As a rule known as "Purlins".
3. Roof and Wall Panels : Tin conceals and Curtain Wall made of Glass and Roll-shaped steel sheets typically comes in this class.
4. Sandwich Panels: Sandwich Panel is made of three layers , in which a non-Aluminum Core is embedded b/w two aluminum sheet.
5. Different Accessories: Mezzanine floors, Bolts, Insulation, and so on.



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Application of Waterproofing

The reason for the application of waterproofing is to forestall the water to permeate or enter into any underground concrete members. At the point when the water enters into the subgrade concrete-like establishment, for example, tangle establishment, balance, rafter, and so forth the steel fortification that is inserted in the concrete would erode because of a concoction response brought about by water and the structure would inevitably come up short.

Application of waterproofing particularly for enormous structures would need to be carefully administered by a quality specialist so as to forestall disappointment of application or dissention to the quality method.

In this technical explanation, we'll be going to utilize the membrane type waterproofing, this sort of waterproofing is fitting for structures like tall structures which has a more profound establishment where water pressure is amazingly high.

Here is the technique explanation for application of waterproofing membrane.

Reason and Coverage

The reason for this technique articulation is to portray the measures and methods of the best possible application of waterproofing membrane in our undertaking. Work will be completed according to the drawing and task determination.

Work strategy

Work readiness and application of primer: Any undulations or distensions on a superficial level would be expelled so as to get a smooth surface. The surface must be completely cleaned and liberated from dust, soil free materials, grease or oil. Then, some 50x50mm sized filet made of concrete sand (1:3) blend would be put along corners of dividers or neck segments and some other intersections.



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Fixed Cross Section Prestressed Concrete

Prestressed concrete is versatile to a wide assortment of basic frameworks. These incorporate pre-tensioned and post-tensioned structures, both cast set up and precast, and other prestressed elements related to regularly reinforced concrete. While there is no broad arrangement for precast and prestressed concrete, it is valuable to amass certain elements and structures to clarify how prestressed and precast concrete is designed and built.

Prestressed and precast concrete might be considered in four general classes:

1. Standardized Elements
2. Fixed Cross Section Elements
3. Fully Engineered Elements
4. Precast Non-prestressed Elements

While there is some cover, each gathering has its own special attributes. We will discuss the Fixed Cross Section Elements of prestressed concrete today.

Fixed Cross Section Elements

The design engineer is required to decide the prestressing forces and tendon areas in fixed cross section circumstances. Two regular fixed section design conditions are post-tensioned pillars and slabs for building or parking structure development, and girders for bridge development. Different utilizations of fixed section elements incorporate structures, for example, water tanks and post-tensioned slabs on-ground.

Flat plate and flat slab floor frameworks are undeniably appropriate for the utilization of post-tensioning tendons. Another well known framework is single direction slab and pillar floor frameworks that are thrown set up. The design engineer determines a tendon profile geometry and a normal viable post-tensioning force important to fulfill the design necessities.



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Types and Design of Staircases

RCC Structures are only strengthened solid structures. RCC structure is made out of building parts, for example, Footings, Columns, Beams, Slabs, Staircase and so forth. These parts are fortified with steel that offer security to the structure.

Staircase is one such significant segment in a RCC structure. In this article, we will talk about various kinds of staircases and study the dog-legged strengthened concrete solid staircase structure.

About Stairs: Stairs consist of steps orchestrated in an arrangement for motivation behind offering access to various floors of a structure. Since a stair is regularly the main method for correspondence between the different floors of a structure, the area of the stair requires great and cautious thought.

In a private house, the staircase might be given close to the fundamental passage. In an open structure, the stairs must be from the primary passageway itself and found midway, to give fast availability to the vital condos.

All staircases ought to be enough lit and appropriately ventilated.



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Methods of Repairing Cracks in Concrete

It is generally determined that concrete structures face cracking hassle in the course of its lifestyles. This crack ought to be given extreme and careful attention and repair on proper time. Repairing cracked concrete involves quite a few time and value constraints.

There are several techniques of concrete crack restore. Choosing the ideal technique of concrete crack repair will let you save a whole lot of time, cash and power and might deliver long-lasting results. It is vital to understand the kind and nature of cracks that have appeared inside the construction to have the ability to pick out the most suitable and price-effective technique of restore. It is also vital to recognize the cause of cracks so that it is able to be corrected to preserve the cracks from recurring.

The following are the methods of repairing cracks in concrete:

Epoxy Injections: Epoxy injection technique of concrete crack repair can be used to bond the cracks having greater than or same to 0.05mm opening. This technique is not appropriate for crack is energetic and if the cracks are large in number, or whilst the water leakage can't be controlled.

In this approach, the cracks on uncovered concrete surfaces are sealed through injecting epoxy under the concrete crack. But, it's essential to find and connect the major motive of cracks before injecting the epoxy into the cracks otherwise the cracks will keep on emerging once more and again.

Problems which include leakages and silt contamination harm the efficiency of epoxy, therefore it is recommended to fix these problems earlier than injecting the epoxy to make it remaining longer. The Epoxy injection approach of crack repair requires quite a few discipline and skillful execution so that you need to make sure that the person executing the repairs knows his work.

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How to resolve incorrect myth about column construction

The super structure can be developed in different methods. The walls of houses for two to three storied structures can be constructed with bricks containing the slabs, lintels, chajja etc. in reinforced concrete in the regions where superior quality bricks are obtainable.

Such construction is known as load bearing construction due to the whole load generating from the slabs, beams, walls etc is delivered to the foundation via the brick walls.

In the regions where natural disasters like earthquake or high speed storms occur frequently, such load bearing wall construction is unsafe for resisting horizontal drifts if not retrofitted. This type of construction is appropriate upto G+2 storied building on the whole.

The demand for RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete) framed construction will be increased to cope up with the requirement of developing high storied building with natural hazards.

Generally, RCC framed construction comprises of a series of columns which are arranged properly in the house and interconnected with beams to build a frame. These columns deliver the building load to soil located below via RCC footings.

The frame, starting from the foundation, has to be designed by A structural engineer will design the frame that start from the foundation as well as settle on the mix of concrete to be applied, the sizes of columns and beams, the reinforcement to be arranged therein, on the basis of the loads to be retained by the structure.

Definition of Column: Column stands for a vertical compression member that transfers the load of the structure to foundations. They are reinforced with the use of main longitudinal (vertical) bars to withstand compression and/or bending; and transverse steel (closed ties) to withstand shearing force.

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Staircase Dimensions - How to Calculate Properly

Staircase measurements are a significant piece of staircase security. This page covers the entirety of the significant staircase estimations and a slip-up to keep an eye out for! Staircase dimensions are an important part of staircase safety. Here isn this article we cover all of the important staircase measurements and mistakes not to ignore.

Treads and Risers: The tread size (min 10ins/25.4cm) is directed by the normal grown-up foot size, despite the fact that it isn't important to have the option to accommodate your whole foot on a tread all together for strolling up the stairs to be both agreeable and safe.

The riser height (max 7¾ins/19.7cm) is constrained by the manner by which we descend the stairs. Things being what they are, you could move up definitely more than 7¾ inches effectively and you could descend unquestionably more than 7¾ inches effectively on the off chance that you are confronting in reverse. The rungs of a stepping stool are set at progressively like 12ins/30cm separated. However, we go down the stairs confronting advances, and it's this that restrains the riser size to being a lot smaller.

The most extreme measurement between balusters is 6ins/15.2cm. I don't know for certain what this depends on, however I'm thinking the thought is that it shouldn't be anything but difficult to get a foot or arm caught in the middle of a baluster. Having said that there are a lot of staircase plans where the external handrail has greater holes or is missing through and through.

Staircase estimations: To compute the run of the stairs, just duplicate the tread measurement (guarantee this does exclude the nose - see underneath) by the quantity of steps.

To figure the rise of the stairs, increase the rise measurement by the quantity of steps.

Or on the other hand, to turn out what number of steps you need, take your ceiling height and separation by suppose 16 to begin with. On the off chance that you think of a riser that is a sensible size and not exactly the greatest measurement shown above you need 16 stages. Have a go at partitioning your ceiling height by different numbers until you concoct a riser measurement that works.

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Structural Load Analysis of a Construction

Structural analysis is a significant piece of a design of structures and other constructed resources, for example, scaffolds and passages, as structural loads can cause pressure, twisting and uprooting that may bring about structural issues or even disappointment.

The structure guidelines necessitate that structures must be designed and worked to have the option to withstand all load types that they are probably going to look at during their lifecycle.

There are various sorts of load that can follow up on a structure, the nature of which will change as indicated by the design, use, area and materials being utilized. Design necessities are commonly indicated as far as the greatest loads that a structure must have the option to withstand.

Loads are commonly named either dead loads (DL) or live loads (LL). Dead loads allude to the structure's self weight and for the most part stay consistent during the structure's life. Live loads, for example, traffic loads may fluctuate.

Loads may likewise be classified as:

Concentrated loads (or point loads): Single loads that demonstration over a generally little zone, for example, column loads.

Line loads: Loads apply a load along a line, for example, a parcel's weight on the floor.

Distributed (or surface) loads: These apply a load over a surface zone, for example, the heaviness of floors and roofing materials.

Dead loads (DL): Dead loads, otherwise called perpetual or static loads, are those overwhelmingly connected with the heaviness of the structure itself, and thus stay stationary and moderately consistent after some time. Dead loads may incorporate the heaviness of any structural components, lasting non-structural segments, relentless installations, for example, plasterboard, worked in cabinets, etc.



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Methods of Repairing Cracks in Concrete

It is generally determined that concrete structures face cracking hassle in the course of its lifestyles. This crack ought to be given extreme and careful attention and repair on proper time. Repairing cracked concrete involves quite a few time and value constraints.

There are several techniques of concrete crack restore. Choosing the ideal technique of concrete crack repair will let you save a whole lot of time, cash and power and might deliver long-lasting results. It is vital to understand the kind and nature of cracks that have appeared inside the construction to have the ability to pick out the most suitable and price-effective technique of restore. It is also vital to recognize the cause of cracks so that it is able to be corrected to preserve the cracks from recurring.

The following are the methods of repairing cracks in concrete:

Epoxy Injections: Epoxy injection technique of concrete crack repair can be used to bond the cracks having greater than or same to 0.05mm opening. This technique is not appropriate for crack is energetic and if the cracks are large in number, or whilst the water leakage can't be controlled.

In this approach, the cracks on uncovered concrete surfaces are sealed through injecting epoxy under the concrete crack. But, it's essential to find and connect the major motive of cracks before injecting the epoxy into the cracks otherwise the cracks will keep on emerging once more and again.

Problems which include leakages and silt contamination harm the efficiency of epoxy, therefore it is recommended to fix these problems earlier than injecting the epoxy to make it remaining longer. The Epoxy injection approach of crack repair requires quite a few discipline and skillful execution so that you need to make sure that the person executing the repairs knows his work.

Epoxy resin loses power while exposed to fireplace or sustained elevated temperatures and fireproofing safety is required for such structural maintenance.


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How to Calculate the Safe Bearing Capacity of Soil

It is extremely important to figure out the safe bearing capacity of the soil at the construction site. If this is not done properly, the structure may settle, and the building may get damaged, or even collapse. For this reason, we perform various tests to find out the safe bearing capacity of the soil. Today, let us see how we can do this.

The safe bearing capacity of soil is defined as the maximum load per unit area that the soil can bear without any displacement or settlement. This is measured in terms of kilograms per square centimeter. If the load exceeds this mark, the soil will start to displace or break. This will lead to structure settlement, which can end up in destructive results.

Formula:
Safe bearing capacity of soil = (ultimate bearing capacity)/(Cross-section area x Factor of safety)

Explanation: The ultimate bearing capacity of the soil is the point at which the soil starts to displace under load.

Any soil can take up to a certain amount of load only, after which it starts to settle or displace.

The cross-section area is the area of soil on site on which the tests are being performed. It can be a square meter in general practice.

The factor of safety indicates how safe the soil capacity results must be before considering a certain type of construction. Naturally, it depends upon the type of building being constructed. It is kept at 2 for general civil constructions and 3 for high-rise or heavy constructions.


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Advantages and Disadvantages of On-site and Off-site Construction

The needs and restrictions at your construction project may make you choose between one of the two main methods of construction: on-site and off-site. Both are widely used in today’s construction industry, depending upon the requirements at the site and according to design.

What is On-Site Construction?
On-site construction is the more traditional method. Here, structures are assembled from raw materials at the site itself, hence the name. The method has to be carried out sequentially and materials needs to be stored and used at the site.

What is Off-Site Construction?
With modern technologies, off-site method of construction has become possible. In this, parts or blocks of the structure are constructed in a designated factory or yard in standardized process. Then, these pre-built blocks are carried to the project site where they are assembled together to form the structure.

Both of the above methods have their own advantages and disadvantages, which make them suitable to different scenarios. Let’s discuss them below.

On-Site Construction

Advantages:

1. Customized Design: Since there is no restriction on what shape of objects are available of construction, there are limitless customization options in this manner. In fact most non-standard designs have to rely upon the on-site method just for this.
2. Alteration: After the construction you can easily modify the structure with this method. It doesn’t require you to depend upon third-party construction factories to add or change a room in your house that has been constructed in the traditional method.
3. Space-friendly: Transporting precast blocks in tight urban areas can get simply impossible. More often, it’s prohibitively expensive. In these scenarios you have no choice but to construct everything on-site.

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Minimum Foundation Depth for Houses

The foundation of a house is what holds the structure up, carries its entire weight. When you try to design a new building, you must consider how deep the foundation should be in order to properly support the building. This is called the foundation depth. It is measured by the vertical distance between the footing and the natural ground surface.

Expansive Soil: One thing to be kept in mind here that light soil has expansive properties. Due to wet and dry weathers, the soil can inflate and condense accordingly. This changes the effective natural ground surface level.

As a rule of thumb, foundations are placed under this level of soil, where such changes do not occur. That is about a meter in depth, in most cases.

However, this can be significantly higher if you have expansive soil or black cotton soil on site. This type of soil can take a load of 200-300 kpa only. Any more and the building will settle.

Groundwater Under Soil: Also, another thing to be kept in mind when deciding the minimum foundation depth is the presence of water under the ground. If the groundwater table is close to the foundation, then the soil under the foundation can flow around.

Water seeps up into the soil and makes it weak. To resist this, the bottom of the footing should be placed at a deep enough place where groundwater does not seep into the soil any more.

Cold Regions: Frost changes the nature of soil. It heaves the soil upward and that may create cavities underground. For this reason, in cold regions where snowing and/or ground frosts are normal, the foundations for outside columns or walls should be placed below the level down to which frost can affect the soil.

In the northern US, this can be as deep as 1.5 meters. Further, if the internal walls are heated, then the outer walls would require a deeper foundation so that the heat does not alter the soil properties.

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About Precast Concrete Piles - the Pros and Cons

The most common type of them, a precast concrete pile is a deep foundation used to transfer loads from a upper, soft layer of soil to a hardar, capable lower layer. They can be rectangular, square, round or polygonal in shape. Extra reinforcements are provided in the concrete so as to provide support for the forces received before the instalent.

The precast concrete piles are constructed in a casting yard. Then they are transported to the required location and installed as necessary. They are constructed by pouring the concrete in a conventional reinforcement cage. This has several steel bars in horizontal and vertical positions, held together by individual or spiral ties.

Types of Precast Concrete Piles - There are two main categories into which we can divide:

1. Driven Precast Concrete Piles: It is precast in a construction yard and then hammered into the soft ground at the target location. At most they can go up to 40 feet deep.

2. Bored Precast Concrete Piles: After they are made in the construction yard, they are transferred to the target location. The location already has boreholes for the piles; they are just lowered into these holes. Any space remaining between the bore hole and the pile is grouted.

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Permanent and Temporary Works at Construction Sites

Every day, millions of people work in various construction sites in our Country. By its very nature, a building or heavy construction site is not a safe place. There is always the danger of some accidents, dust and dirt, contamination, burning, hearing damage, and many other issues. So, let us see today how you can maintain your personal safety and hygiene in a construction site.

A. Eye Protection: There are lots of dust and small particles floating on air in a construction site. Some of them are quite damaging to your eye and retina. Therefore, you should always wear protective eyewear in a construction site. I mean actually wear them - not just hang them on your neck just because it’s a regulation!

Additionally, you have to wear special eyewear where welding is going on in a building site. The light of the welding is extremely bright. Looking directly at it can substantially damage your cornea.

Furthermore, you should take proper care of your eyewear. The eyes are a very vulnerable area of your body and they can get infected easily. For this reason, always clean your eyewear thoroughly before and after wearing it. Also, make sure the device is in proper working condition. Replace a damaged eyewear immediately.

B. Ear Protection: A construction site is always full of noises. There are cranes and other heavy machinery working, pumps and generators running, saws cutting steel, welding going on, and whatnot. For this reason, proper noise suppressing headphones are supplied to workers in such situations. Wear them! They are not just for show.

Many times, in widespread large construction projects, communication headsets double as protective earphones. This serves the team to stay in contact with the supervisors at all times and be protected from harsh, loud noise as well.

Sometimes, instead of using noise-suppressing earmuffs, the company supplies disposable earplugs. Do not reuse these! They get very dirty with all the earwax and they also absorb the oil. So, washing them is futile - they will still be dirty.

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How to avoid Honeycombing in RCC Structures

Definition of a honeycombing: Honeycombing refers to a structural fault in a RCC Structure. Honeycombed surface is the areas of the concrete surface where the coarse aggregate are eminently observable.

If precaution is not taken for honeycombed surface, the RCC structure fails to achieve optimal performance according to its design (structurally weak). Besides, it also lets damaging agents like contaminated water and air entering through the produced voids which can impact the strength of structure considerably.

Causes for Honeycombing: Honeycombing in RCC Structure is happened because of the following reasons -

1. Concrete mix is not homogenous.
2. The applicability of concrete is inadequate and not matched with its placement need.
3. Inadequate compaction to concrete.
4. Concrete flow is not dispersed to all corner due to steel congestion.

5. Concrete is set afore time prior to placing.
6. High free fall of concrete, at the time of pouring
7. Form work is not waterproof or inflexible.
8. Incorrect detailing and/or fixing of steel

How Honeycombing in Concrete can be avoided?

Check concrete production/cohesiveness from time to time to organize all concrete batches.

Tip: If it is possible to create ?ball? from the fresh concrete, a cohesive concrete mix is produced.

Concrete workability should tally with the placement need. As for example, a lightly reinforced column should contain 75mm slump, a heavily reinforced column may require 150mm slump.

Make sure that the compaction of placed concrete is perfect, vibrators should have been detached as big air bubbles stops to come out (over vibration can lead to bleeding). Various sizes (25mm, 40mm, and 60mm) of vibrator needle should have been utilized according to RCC sections.

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Thumb Rules to Follow While Designing Columns

Columns are essential support structures that are almost inevitably used in any construction projects. From ancient times, columns have been an indispensable part of erecting buildings, them being one of the most important load-bearing members. Obviously, one needs to be careful while designing such important structures.

As per the construction sciences and technologies, there are many rules applicable to specific columnar structures. However, there are some few basic rules of column designing that all engineers can keep in mind while designing most types of columns and similar vertical supports.

Today, we will discuss these important thumb rules of column design in this article. Needless to say, columns need to be designed keeping in mind the total amount of forces acting on the structure. But also, keeping these basic guidelines in mind can prevent architects and engineers from making silly mistakes.

Rule 1: Essentially, the size of the columns would depend upon the total amount of forces acting on the column. In short you can consider this as the total load on a column. This will make or break the column, so you need to be ensuring that your columns design can withhold this entire load and anything else that may come later.

That is, the total load on a column may be not only the weight of the structure that it bears, but also the movable materials that structure will bear. For example, while designing a multi-storied godown, you will need to care about not only the weight of the floor and the walls and the roof, but more also, the weight of the goods that are going to be stored on that floor. This can get pretty great in case of solid materials.

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What is Self-Compacting Concrete and How is it used

Self-compacting Concrete, or Self-Consolidating Concrete, generally called SCC, is a fresh concrete that runs under its own weight and does not want external oscillation to undergo compaction. Constructors use SCC in the building structures where it is troublesome to use vibrators for the consolidation of concrete.

Why is Compaction Needed?

After the liquid or paste concrete is poured in place and should be left to set, it should undergo the compaction process before it starts to harden. Compaction or Consolidation significantly enhances the final strength of concrete and improves bonding with reinforcement. It also increases the abrasion resistance and overall sturdiness of the concrete. Moreover, this process decreases the permeability of concrete and helps to minimize its shrinkage and creep characteristics.

What is SCC?

The SCC or Self-compacting concrete is a form of concrete that can flow under its weight, and that does not need to go through a separate compaction process to fill and flow through heavy reinforcement areas.

SCC has more or less equivalent cement binders and water ratios as the standard concrete mix. However, the variations in the mix cause the SCC to produce a higher strength without vibrating the concrete by forming better bonds between the hardened paste and the aggregates and reinforcements. You can pour SCC into structures more than five meters tall because due to its characteristics the aggregates will not get segregated. The self-compacting concrete can also be poured faster than the regular mix.

What are the Materials in SCC Mix?

To give the concrete paste diverse properties, somewhat different materials ratios are used in the SCC mix. These are as follows.

Cement: Grade 43 cement is used in self-compacting concrete, which must meet the physical properties according to IS:8112 code. The following table will give a better understanding of the cement used in SCC

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Types of Cranes Used in the Construction Industry

From as far back as the Mesopotamian civilization, cranes have been used for lifting objects that are too heavy or too repetitive to be done manually. Since this type of work is very much used in the construction industry, the use of cranes in it has been invaluable and indispensable since the ancient era. From the ancient Shadouf to roman Polyspastos to modern mobile telescopic cranes, they were used pretty much everywhere on earth.

What is a Crane?

A crane is a machine, comprised of beams, cables, and pullies, which is used to lift or lower heavy objects. An appropriately equipped crane may also move objects horizontally as well as vertically. The mechanism can be supported by a tower or a derrick.

Most cranes used in construction are temporary structures or even mounted on mobile platforms so that they can be moved around the construction site as necessary. They can be taken away when construction finishes in order to leave the site for normal usage. In some cases, where the building in question requires constant maintenance, the engineers may choose to rig a permanent crane with the building.

Modern cranes are powered by means of hydraulics that are driven by an electric motor or a combustion engine driven by fossil fuel. Operating (and driving, in case of mobile cranes) the crane is possible from an operators cabin that may be mounted on crane vehicle or rig itself, or a control station beside the crane, or by means of portable radio-operated controllers that gives the crane operator the freedom to move around and see the loading and unloading operation from any reasonable point of view. Taking that flexibility to a newer level, there are some modern cranes available that can even be controlled via mobile phone apps.

Types of Cranes in Building

Depending upon their usage, flexibility, and mobility, there can be several types of cranes to choose from to use in a construction site. The varieties of choices enable the constructor to adapt to any load-lifting requirements on site. Let us see what they are.

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Uses of prestressed concrete in civil engineering

Prestressed concrete is suitable for different types of structural systems which range from pre-tensioned and post-tensioned structures, both cast-in-place and precast, and other pre-stressed components along with normally reinforced concrete.

Pre-stressed and precast concrete is divided in following four major categories:

• Standardized Elements
• Fixed Cross Section Elements
• Fully Engineered Elements
• Precast Nonprestressed Elements

Standardized Precast Prestressed Elements

Pretensioned concrete beams and slabs are normally built up in recyclable steel forms in a precast plant. Though a humble amount of custom formwork is utilized at precast plants, but when standardized components are utilized, the quality becomes better and the costs are decreased.

They comprises of standard sections like single-T and double-T beams, box girders, hollowcore slabs, inverted T-beams, and bridge girders. With the capital investment, it is possible to build up and equip a precast plant with the concrete mixing equipment, forms, stressing beds, curing systems, and heavy lifting equipment.

To increase ROI, the forms and stressing facilities should be applied continually. By improving the production process, the precast pieces can be fabricated on a routine and regular basis.

The cost efficiencies of this type of fabrication allow the architects and engineers to choose the sections for an extensive range of applications and ensure accessibility and competitive cost. Hollowcore planks, single-T, and double-T beams are applied as floor elements in building construction.

Fixed Cross Section Elements

The design engineer takes the responsibility to find out the pre-stressing forces and tendon locations in fixed cross section situations. Two common fixed section design conditions belong to post-tensioned beams and slabs for developing or parking garage construction, and girders for bridge construction.

Other uses of fixed section components range from structures like water tanks and post-tensioned slabs on-ground.

Fully Engineered Elements

For fully engineered elements, there should be constant detailed engineering all through design and construction. Instances of fully engineered structures are segmental bridges, specialty transit structures, tanks, towers, stadiums, floating facilities, and unusual building construction. The design of these structures is based on significant engineering effort as well as on-site inspection.

The intricacy of these structures requires the basic understanding of structural behavior, loads, prestressing effects, and material behavior. Collaboration of efforts among engineers, precast plants, and general contractors is essential.

Precast Nonprestressed Elements

The significant variation in grouping is that pretensioned elements need significant plant capitalization and stressing beds. Precast pieces are fabricated on the jobsite or in a facility devoid of stressing beds and other equipment related to a plant operation. Tilt-up walls are good instances of on-site precasting.

If a small amount of prestressing is necessary for delivery, erection or final loads, it is arranged in the form of single-strand post-tensioned tendons. The instances of precast nonprestressed elements are architectural precast panels and tilt-up construction. Architectural precast panels are utilized either as structural elements or the exterior finish of buildings.

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Published By
Rajib Dey
www.constructioncost.co
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